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KEYS TO GENERA

General Synopsis

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1
Lichen-forming, comprising crustose, leprose, filamentous, placodioid, squamulose, foliose, fruticose and foliicolous life forms 2
Lichenicolous, parasitic, commensalistic or saprophytic on lichen-forming fungi KEY 1 [Lichenicolous fungi]
2
Thallus crustose, in the form of a crust (that can usually only be removed with part of the substratum) which is either continuous, cracked or areolate, sometimes ± evanescent or immersed 3
Thallus filamentous, placodioid, squamulose, foliose, fruticose or foliicolous 11
3
Thallus fertile (fruits globose, disc-like, elongate, stalked, shelf- or mushroom-like 4
Thallus sterile (usually with soralia, isidia or entirely leprose) 7
4
Fruits basidiomata, producing basidiospores 5
Fruits ascomata, producing ascospores 8
5
Basidiomata stalked 6
Basidiomata spreading, zonate, shelf-like Dictyonema
6
Fruiting body an impermanent, seasonal, yellow or orange or brownish mushroom Lichenomphalia
Fruiting body simple or lacerate or lobed stalks, not a seasonal mushroom, white to pale-yellow or ochre-pink Multiclavula
7
Thallus leprose, entirely granular-powdery, without a cortex, occasionally indistinctly lobed at margins; mostly on vertical surfaces or underhangs KEY 2 [Leprose lichens]
Thallus not entirely leprose, ±corticate towards margins and when young; lobes present or absent; soredia or isidia often present; on bark, wood, rock, concrete, asbestos, cement KEY 3 [Sterile crustose lichens]
8
Apothecia sessile or immersed 9
Apothecia stalked KEY 4 [Crustose lichens with stalked apothecia]
9
Fruits not perithecia or perithecia-like 10
Fruits perithecia or perithecia-like, globose, opening by a minute pore at apex, or several peritheca may occur within a receptacle with 3–15 minute pores (×10 lens KEY 5 [Crustose lichens with perithecia]
10
Fruits elongate (lirellae), the disc exposed or a slit, or fissurine, sometimes short, straight, curved, stellate or in ±parallel lines KEY 6 [Crustose lichens with lirellate apothecia]
Fruits discoid, the disc ±exposed at maturity, concave to globose, sometimes immersed in the thallus or enclosed in warts KEY 7 [Crustose lichens with discoid apothecia]
11
Thallus placodioid, squamulose, foliose, fruticose or foliicolous 12
Thallus filamentous, very fine, soft, hair-like or felt-like, fungal hyphae enveloping photobiont filaments or chains KEY 8 [Filamentous lichens]
12
Thallus squamulose, foliose, fruticose or foliicolous 13
Thallus placodioid (crustose centrally but distinctly lobed and often ±free at or near margins, which can usually only be removed with part of the substratum) KEY 9 [Placodioid lichens]
13
Thallus foliose, fruticose or foliicolous 14
Thallus of small (to 10 mm long), leaf-like, or shield-like, dorsiventral scales (squamules), often overlapping and forming swards; fruiting bodies sessile or on erect stalks (podetia) KEY 10 [Squamulose lichens]
14
Thallus fruticose or foliicolous 15
Thallus foliose, of horizontally spreading lobes, leaf-like, dorsiventral, the upper surface differing in colour from the lower surface which is usually corticate, attached to the substratum by rhizines, tomentum, or part of the lower cortex, rarely unattached; usually easily detached from substratum KEY 11 [Foliose lichens]
15
Thallus fruticose, shrub-like or beard-like, rarely worm-like or thread-like with erect or pendulous branches; terete or angular in cross section, or if flattened then with photobiont cells above and below arranged round a central strand or hollow cavity; attached only at base, or by a few, scattered hapters KEY 12 [Fruticose lichens]
Thallus on upper or lower surface of living leaves KEY 13 [Foliicolous lichens]

KEY 1 – LICHENICOLOUS FUNGI

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1
Spores produced in asci 2
Spores produced in basidia 51
2
Ascomata present 3
Conidiomata present, ascomata lacking 45
3
Hymenium not exposed at maturity (ascomata perithecia) 4
Hymenium exposed at maturity (ascomata apothecia or catathecia) 20
4
Ascospores brown at maturity 5
Ascospores hyaline at maturity 12
5
Ascospores transversely septate 6
Ascospores non-septate 11
6
Ascospores 1-septate 7
Ascospores 3- septate 10
7
Asci 2–8-spored 8
Asci multi-spored *Muellerella
8
Ascomata perithecia arising singly, without a common, black clypeus; forming galls or of scattered perithecia; on a variety of hosts (Caloplaca, Chondropsis Degeliella, Physcia, Placopsis, Thamnolia) but never on Umbilicaria 9
Ascomata pseudothecia, in groups united by a common, black clypeus; gall-forming on species of Umbilicaria *Clypeococcum grossum
9
Ascospores 1(–2)-septate, walls delicately to coarsely verrucose *Polycoccum
Ascospores 1-septate, smooth-walled *Endococcus
10
Perithecia papillate; interascal filaments not branched; ascospores 1–3-septate, 10–12 × 3.5–5.5 μm; on species of Placopsis *Phaeospora perrugosaria
Perithecia immersed; interascal filaments branched and anastomosing pseudoparaphyses; ascospores 3-septate, 18–27.5 × 7.5–12 μm; on species of Degelia, Massalongia carnosa, Pseudocyphellaria, Rinodina and Xanthoria *Pyrenidium actinellum
11
Asci polysporous (50–200 ascospores); hamathecium of netted paraphysoids; ascospores subglobose to globose, 2–4 × 2 μm; on species of Brigantiaea *Rosellinula lopadii
Asci (4–)8-spored; interascal filaments unbranched; ascospores 9–18 × 6–11 μm; on species of Degelia *Rosselliniella coccocarpiae
12
Ascospores transversely septate 13
Ascospores non-septate 19
13
Ascospores 1-septate 14
Ascospores 3- or more septate 18
14
Hamathecium dissolving or absent 15
Hamathecium persisting 16
15
Perithecia setose; ascospores 6–12 × 2–4 μm, to 4-guttulate; on Pseudocyphellaria coronata *Wentiomyces tatjanae
Perithecia or pseudothecia without setae; on species of Lecanora, Physcia, Pseudocyphellaria, Thamnolia and Xanthoria *Stigmidium
16
Hamathecium of branched anastomosing paraphysoids 17
Hamathecium of thick-walled hyphae; perithecia densely aggregated; all parts of ascomata inspersed with oil droplets; on Xanthoria elegans *Lichenochora xanthoriae
17
Perispore smooth; ascospores 15–17 × 4.5–5.5 μm; on Arthrorhaphis alpina and A. citrinella var. catolechioides *Cercidospora trypetheliza
Perispore distinctly warted; ascospores 18–26 × 6.5–9 μm; on Lecanora dispersa and Xanthoria elegans *Zwackhiomyces
18
Perithecia subglobose, black, not stromatose; ascospores 3–7-septate (to submuriform), 25–45 × 6–9 μm; on Normandina pulchella *Lauderlindsaya borreri
Perithecia fleshy, yellow-orange, partially immersed in a white, byssoid stroma; ascospores 13-septate, 125–240 × 2–3 μm; on Thelotrema lepadinum *Nectria byssophila
19
Ascospores ovoid, fusiform or ellipsoidal 20
Ascospores globose, 8–10 μm; on Normandina pulchella *Globosphaeria jamesii
20
Ascospores without apical gelatinous appendages 21
Ascospores sometimes with apical, filiform, gelatinous appendages, 11.5–19 × 4.5–5.5 μm; on Leptogium aucklandicum *Myxophora apotheciicola
21
Perithecia immersed in blister-like galls; ascospores ellipsoidal with rounded ends, 0–2-guttulate, 8–10(–11) × 3–5 μm; on Thamnolia vermicularis *Thamnogalla crombei
Perithecia not immersed in blister-like galls; ascospores fusiform, 10–12 × 2.5 μm; on Lecidea fuscoatrula *Verrucaria cramba
22
Ascomata apothecia 23
Ascomata catathecia; ascospores hyaline, ellipsoidal, 1-septate; on foliicolous species of Porina *Lichenopeltella epiphylla
23
Ascospores brown at maturity 24
Ascospores colourless at maturity 30
24
Ascospores transversely septate 25
Ascospores muriform, 20–25 × 10–12 μm; asci 4-spored; on Cladonia squamules *Diploschistes muscorum
25
Hamathecium of paraphyses, or of branched, anastomosing paraphysoids 26
Hamathecium lacking, asci developing in a mass of paraplectenchymatous tissue; ascospores with a prominent perispore, 8–10 × 3–5 μm; on species of Xanthoparmelia *Lichenostigma cosmopolites
26
Ascospores 1-septate 27
Ascospores 1–3–7-septate 29
27
Ascospores thick-walled, polarilocular, smooth-walled; hamathecium of paraphyses 28
Ascospores not polarilocular, walls warted; hamathecium of paraphysoids *Abrothallus
28
Ascospores Buellia-type, 12–14 × 7–8 μm; on species of Aspicilia and Xanthoparmelia *Monerolechia badia
Ascospores Dirinaria-type, 11.5–17 × 6–9 μm; on Lecanora bicincta and L. rupicola *Rinodina insularis
29
Ascomata arthonioid, adnate to sessile or immersed, immarginate; hamathecium of branched paraphysoids; ascospores 1–3-septate, end cell often enlarged *Arthonia
Ascomata lecideine, sessile to subpedicellate, thinly marginate; hamathecium of sparsely branched, narrow paraphyses; ascospores 1–3–5–7-septate to submuriform, end cell not enlarged *Dactylospora
30
Ascospores transversely septate 31
Ascospores non-septate 39
31
Ascospores 1–3-septate 32
Ascospores 8–12-septate, fusiform-acicular, 30–90 × 8–15 μm; on Pseudocyphellaria intricata *Arthrorhaphis grisea
32
Ascomata lecideine, marginate 33
Ascomata arthonioid, adnate to sessile or immersed, immarginate; hamathecium of branched paraphysoids; ascospores 1–3-septate, end cell often enlarged *Arthonia
33
Hamathecium of paraphyses 34
Hamathecium of branched and anastomosing paraphysoids 36
34
Ascomata not bursting through cortex of host 35
Ascomata bursting through cortex of host; ascospores ellipsoidal to soleiform, 1– septate, constricted at septum, 12–19 × 4–6 μm; on Pseudocyphellaria multifida *Corticifraga fuckelii
35
Apothecia scattered to aggregated; disc plane to subconvex, cream to dark-brown or black; ascospores simple to 1-septate, ellipsoidal to broadly ellipsoidal, not guttulate,10–14(–15) × 4–5.5(–7) μm; on Pseudocyphellaria colensoi *Scutula miliaris
Apothecia immersed to sessile to subpedicellate; disc plane to convex, black; ascospores 1-septate, cylindrical to narrowly ellipsoidal, multiguttulate, 10–16 (–17) × 3–4 μm; on Ramalina celastri *Llimoniella ramalinae
36
Ascomata stromatic, with lirellate to almost perithecioid loculi; ascospores 3-septate; on species of Pseudocyphellaria and Sticta caliginosa, Haematomma hilare, Heterodermia or Lecidea 37
Ascomata thyriothecia; ascospores 1-septate; on Peltigera and Nephroma australe *Hemigrapha
37
Fertile loculi perithecioid to irregularly lirellate, never with a punctiform ostiole; surface of ascomata not sprinkled with ostioles; fertile loculi embedded in a stroma that is often carbonised over, between and under them 38
Fertile loculi perithecioid, with a kind of ostiole, and thus ascomatal surface sprinkled with numerous punctiform holes; stroma reduced to a clypeus-like, blackish layer covering fertile loculi; on Pseudocyphellaria glabra *Perigrapha nitida
38
Ascomata initially roundish, flat to subconvex, not constricted basally, not gall-forming, stromatic, unilocular to weakly multilocular, when mature the upper stromatic layer breaks along irregular lines, some of the stromatic fragments disappear forming a mature ascoma irregularly covered by stromatic remnants between which the fertile hymenium is exposed giving the appearance of an Opegrapha-like ascoma, usually < 0.5 mm diam *Opegrapha
Ascomata roundish, flat to strongly convex, commonly producing galls that are basally constricted, stromatic, multilocular; upper stromatic layer often with a warted, lirellate or labyrinthiform ornamentation, but never breaking and partly disappearing when mature; usually > 0.5 mm diam. *Plectocarpon
39
Thallus superficial on surface of host 40
Thallus immersed in host tissue 41
40
Thallus chalky white; medulla I+ violet; apothecia subimmersed; on species of Aspicilia *Lecidea verruca
Thallus medium to dark glossy brown, bullate–areolate; apothecia sessile; on Lecanora rupicola *Rimularia insularis
41
Apothecia erumpent to sessile or superficial 42
Apothecia immersed/urceolate opening by a pore; ascospores ellipsoidal, biguttulate, 5–12 × 3–4.5 μm; on Pertusaria melanospora *Skyttea mayerhoferi
42
Asci 8-spored 43
Asci polysporous; ascospores spherical, 2 μm diam.; on species of Arthonia *Biatorella epiphysa
43
Epithecium smoky blue-green or red-brown 44
Epithecium pale-brown; asci Lecanora-type; ascospores citriform, guttulate, 13–21 × 5–7 μm; on Parmelia saxatilis and Parmelina labrosa *Nesolechia oxyspora
44
Epithecium smoky blue-green; ascospores 7–12 × 5–6 μm; on Candelariella vitellina *Carbonea vitellinaria
Epithecium red-brown to dark-brown; ascospores 8–9 × 2.5–3 μm; on Sticta squamata *Unguiculariopsis triregia
45
Conidia pale- to dark-brown, or pinkish 46
Conidia colourless 49
46
Conidia pale- to dark-brown 47
Conidia in pinkish, compact masses; on Peltigera didactyla *Illosporium carneum
47
Conidia brown, simple 48
Conidia pale-brown, 1-septate, cylindrical, 4–7.5 × 4.4–5; on species of Caloplaca and Lecanora *Lichenodiplis lecanorae
48
Conidia dark-brown, subglobose to obpyriform; on Pseudocyphellaria and Rimelia *Lichenoconium
Conidia brown, spherical, 3.5–6 μm; on Xanthoria *Xanthoriicola physciae
49
Conidia simple, without apical denticulae 50
Conidia triradiate, with 1–4 apical denticulae *Cornutispora
50
Conidia narrowly ellipsoidal, arcuate to bacillar, smooth-walled; on Usnea and Parmotrema perlatum *Phoma
Conidia obpyriform extruding in a mucilaginous drop in pycnidial cavity; on Abrothallus parmeliarum *Vouauxiomyces santessonii
51
Basidiomata corticioid, effuse, thin, arachnoid, forming massive, circular, brown lesions on swards of Desmococcoid green algae, Lecanora conizaeoides and Physcia adscendens, on introduced trees in sites of moderate to heavy atmospheric pollution *Athelia arachnoidea
Basidiomata subspherical or convex, pale-pinkish, red-brown to black; on branches of species of Usnea *Biatoropsis usnearum

KEY 2 – LEPROSE LICHENS

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1
Thallus bright yellow or vivid yellow-green 2
Thallus white, greenish or greyish, never yellow 4
2
Thallus K− 3
Thallus K+ purple Caloplaca pr. p. [C. chrysodeta, C. lutea, C. xantholyta]
3
On dry bark; mainly lowland and coastal Chrysothrix candelaris
On soil or mosses; alpine Arthrorhaphis pr. p.
4
Thallus partly sorediate or, if wholly sorediate, with intermingled short, pale cartilaginous stalks 5
Thallus uniformly leprose, cortex entirely absent Lepraria
5
Thallus uniform, without cartilaginous stalks 6
Thallus with minute, pale cartilaginous stalks intermingled with soralia Leprocaulon
6
Terricolous; white efflorescent soralia on greyish, spreading thallus; usually on exposed clay banks, tracks, paths etc.; Pd+ yellow-orange Dibaeis arcuata
Corticolous; pale-grey, inconspicuous, ±obscured by scattered or contiguous, efflorescent, pale green-white soralia Megalaria pulverea

KEY 3 – STERILE CRUSTOSE LICHENS

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1
Thallus sorediate, without isidia, hyphophores or papillae 2
Thallus with isidia, hyphophores or papillae 21
2
Thallus and/or soredia golden- or orange-yellow (not pale-yellow) when fresh 3
Thallus or soredia not golden- or orange-yellow 9
3
Thallus and/or soredia K+ purple (parietin) 4
Thallus and/or soredia K− or faint red (without parietin) 6
4
Corticolous 5
Saxicolous; of dispersed or contiguous golden- to orange-yellow sorediate granules Caloplaca citrina
5
Thallus greyish inconspicuous; soralia rounded, orange-yellow Caloplaca chrysophthalma
Thallus yellow or greyish yellow, spotted orange (K+ purple), dissolving in a granular–furfuraceous, sorediate crust Caloplaca mooreae
6
Thallus brownish or dull orange-yellow, granular or areolate–squamulose, never entirely leprose 7
Thallus bright-yellow, entirely leprose; on dry, rough-barked trees Chrysothrix candelaris
7
Granules minutely subsquamulose (×10 lens) 8
Granules spherical, c. 0.1 mm diam., corticate Candelariella xanthostigma
8
Squamules to 1 mm diam., usually becoming nodular–crenate and dissolving into clusters of fine, granular soredia Candelariella reflexa
Thallus of well-developed, convex, subsquamulose areolae, or of scattered, warted granules, not becoming sorediate Candelariella vitellina
9
Terricolous 10
Corticolous/lignicolous 12
10
Thallus UV− (squamatic acid absent) 11
Thallus UV+ (squamatic acid present); thallus scurfy grey-white to white, with or without scattered, efflorescent soralia; on clay and along vehicle tracks in grassland Dibaeis arcuata
11
Thallus a minutely granular crust, grey-white, to grey-green tinged brownish, with irregular, orange-red patches (K+ purple); and coalescing, farinose, greenish white soralia Trapeliopsis pseudogranulosa
Thallus of whitish grey, crowded, granular to verrucose areolae; soralia creamish to grey-green, granular C+ red (gyrophoric acid) Trapeliopsis granulosa
12
Corticolous 13
Lignicolous (fenceposts, rotting wood) 18
13
Soralia and thallus yellow or yellow-green (usnic acid present) 14
Soralia and thallus not yellow or yellow-green (usnic acid absent) 15
14
Thallus effuse, granular–scurfy, abundantly sorediate; C+ orange, Pd− (thiophanic acid present, pannarin absent) Lecanora expallens
Thallus rapidly dissolving into soredia, C+ orange, Pd+ red (arthothelin and pannarin present) Lecanora elatinoides
15
Soralia olive-green, or bluish green-grey 16
Soralia whitish or pale greenish white 17
16
Thallus and soralia coarsely granular, dull olive-green to grey-green; in heavily polluted areas Lecanora conizaeoides
Thallus thin, pale-grey; soralia farinose, green-grey or bluish grey, often obscuring thallus Buellia griseovirens
17
Soralia pale-grey or greenish white, K+ yellow, Pd+ red (fumarprotocetraric acid Megalaria pulverea
Soralia white, convex, C+ red (gyrophoric acid) Trapelia corticola
18
Soralia C+ red (gyrophoric acid) 19
Soralia C−; thallus thin, pale-grey; soralia farinose, green-grey or bluish grey, often obscuring thallus Buellia griseovirens
19
Soralia grey-green, aeruginosa or brown-yellow 20
Soralia white, convex Trapelia corticola
20
Soralia grey-green to dark-green, often aeruginose Trapeliopsis flexuosa
Soralia whitish to yellow-brown, sometimes tinged grey-green Trapeliopsis granulosa
21
Thallus with isidia 22
Thallus thin, wax-like; with greenish grey, translucent hyphophores; on smooth bark Jamesiella anastomosans
22
Thallus white; isidia white, finger-like; on alpine soils amongst mosses Pertusaria dactylina
Thallus grey; isidia globose, forming irregular, delimited, blue-black or brown-black, soralia-like clusters; on decorticated wood (fenceposts) in nutrient-enriched habitats Thelomma ocellatum

KEY 4 – CRUSTOSE LICHENS WITH STALKED APOTHECIA

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1
Mazedium present, ascospores maturing outside asci; spore dispersal passive; thallus with pin-like apothecia 2
Mazedium absent, ascospores maturing within asci; spore dispersal active; thallus with or without pin-like apothecia 12
2
Ascospores simple 3
Ascospores 1-septate or submuriform 6
3
Ascospores spherical to subglobose 4
Ascsospores ellipsoidal, with an ornamentation of spirally arranged ridges Microcalicium
4
Spore wall distinctly pigmented, brown to blackish; mazedium brown to black 5
Spore wall hyaline; mazedium pale Sclerophora
5
Ascomata with long and slender stalks; mazedium medium-brown Chaenotheca
Ascomata shortly stalked or sessile; mazedium black Sphinctrina
6
Mazaedium black or with an aeruginose tinge 7
Mazaedium brown Chaenotheca
7
Ascomata sessile or immersed 8
Ascomata distinctly stalked 11
8
Ascomata immersed 9
Ascomata sessile 10
9
Exciple strongly thickened at base; fertile verrucae 1.5–2 mm diam.; thallus with areas of black, granular isidia; medulla I+ blue Thelomma ocellatum
Exciple thin throughout; fertile verrucae up to 1 mm diam.; isidia absent; medulla I− Cyphelium
10
Ascospores cylindrical, 1–3(–7)-septate, with an ornamentation of spirally arranged ridges; mazaedium with an aeruginose tinge Microcalicium
Ascospores ellipsoidal to broadly ellipsoidal, smooth or with an ornamentation of spirally arranged ridges or irregular cracks Cyphelium
11
Ascomata with distinctly constricted capitulum margin; semi-mature ascospores with a thick gelatinous coat Sphinctrina
Ascomata without distinctly constricted capitulum margin; semi-mature ascospores without a thick gelatinous coat Calicium
12
Apothecia pin-like 13
Apothecia not pin-like 18
13
Ascospores simple 14
Ascospores 1–several-septate or submuriform 16
14
Ascus apex strongly and uniformly thickened 15
Asci unevenly thickened, apex in semi-mature asci penetrated by a thin canal; asci usually < 55 μm long Chaenothecopsis
15
Ascospores fusiform, flattened; asci < 45 μm long Mycocalicium
Ascospores ellipsoidal, not flattened; asci > 65 μm long Phaeocalicium
16
Asci strongly and uniformly thickened; asci > 65 μm long 17
Asci unevenly thickened, apex in semi-mature ascospores penetrated by a thin canal; asci usually < 55 μm long Chaenothecopsis
17
Ascospores ellipsoidal, 1-septate, 11–13 μm long Phaeocalicium
Ascospores broadly to narrowly fusiform, (1–)3-septate, 9–35 μm long Stenocybe
18
Apothecia pink to red-brown, on pale, solid stalks 19
Apothecia dark-brown on hollow, green stalks Metus conglomeratus
19
Apothecia solitary, bright rose-pink or orange-pink, convex and club-shaped, immarginate, ecorticate, often sorediate Dibaeis arcuata
Apothecia numerous and contorted to solitary, pale pinkish brown to red-brown ±flattened and disciform, with a distinct, pale, margin, corticate, esorediate Baeomyces heteromorphus

KEY 5 – CRUSTOSE LICHENS WITH PERITHECIA (OR PERITHECIA-LIKE APOTHECIA)

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1
Hymenial algae absent 2
Hymenial algae (2 μm diam.) within perithecium asci 2-spored, ascospores dark- brown, (25–)30–50 × 15–25 μm Staurothele fissa
2
Ascospores simple 3
Ascospores transversely septate or muriform 6
3
Perithecia present; laminal cephalodia absent; thallus K−; ascospores < 30 μm long; saxicolous or terricolous 4
Apothecia present, perithecia-like, immersed in thalline warts; laminal cephalodia present; thallus K+ yellow-orange; ascospores large, 40–70 × 20–30 μm, wall 4 μm thick; mainly corticolous, rarely saxicolous Coccotrema
4
Saxicolous; paraphyses evanescent–gelatinising 5
Terricolous; paraphyses slender, persistent Thrombium epigaeum
5
Involucrellum lid-like, fissured Bagliettoa baldensis
Involucrellum not fissured Verrucaria
6
Ascospores septate 7
Ascospores muriform 21
7
Ascospores colourless 8
Ascospores brown 20
8
Ascomata discrete, occasionally ±confluent but not combined in a stroma 9
Ascomata combined in a stroma with a common, carbonaceous covering (involucrellum) with 8–30 pores; ascospores elongate, 3–20-septate Trypethelium variolosum
9
Ascospores straight 10
Ascospores curved, acicular, 13-septate, 100–160 × 3–5 μm Rhytidiella beloniza
10
Ascospores elongate-fusiform, or soleiform, 1–7-septate; paraphyses simple 11
Ascospores ellipsoidal, oval–ellipsoidal or clavate, 1–3-septate; paraphyses branched or evanescent 12
11
Ascospores soleiform, 1-septate; on algal films overgrowing decaying bryophytes Epigloea soleiformis
Ascospores elongate–fusiform, 1–7-septate; saxicolous, or corticolous Porina
12
Outer spore wall (epispore) often minutely warted or ornamented (use oil immersion) 13
Outer spore wall smooth 14
13
Paraphyses ±evanescent; ascospores 1–3(–4)-septate, often constricted at septum, clustered or biseriate in ascus Arthopyrenia s. lat.
Paraphyses persistent, net-like; ascospores 1-septate, not or rarely constricted at septum, uniseriate in ascus Acrocordia gemmata
14
Thallus corticolous; photobiont Trentepohlia or lacking 15
Thallus saxicolous 19
15
Ascospores 1-septate 16
Ascospores (1–)2–3(–4)-septate 18
16
Hamathecium of persistent, branched and anastomosing pseudoparaphyses 17
Hamathecium of branched but not anastomosing pseudoparaphyses, soon gelatinising Arthopyrenia pr. p.
17
Perithecial wall cellular, without bark cells; asci cylindrical–clavate with a broad ocular chamber; ascospores without a perispore Anisomeridium pr. p.
Perithecial wall hyphal, with bark cells; asci obpyriform; ascospores 16–20(–22) × 4.5–5 μm, with a distinct, 1-μm-thick perispore Naetrocymbe punctiformis
18
Thallus pale-grey, olivaceous, maculate; perithecia glossy, black; ascospores 2–3(–4)-septate, 20–25.5 × 9–11 μm Arthopyrenia peltigerella
Thallus creamish; perithecia partially overgrown by thallus; ascospores 3-septate, 22–30(–33) × 6–9(–10) μm Polymeridium catapastum
19
Paraphyses persistent, anastomosing; ascospores 1-septate Anisomeridium pr. p.
Paraphyses absent; ascospores 1–3-septate Thelidium
20
Spore wall smooth; ascospores 3–7-septate, not constricted at septa; septa thick Pyrenula
Spore wall minutely warted (oil immersion); ascospores 1-septate; septa thin, constricted at septum Mycomicrothelia minutissima
21
Ascospores mainly colourless, rarely becoming pale-brown at maturity 22
Ascospores brown 27
22
Perithecia present, without a thalline rim, disc absent, apical ostioles present 23
Apothecia present (perithecia-like), ±immersed, with a distinct, overarching, thalline rim forming a ±discrete pore; disc often visible 28
23
Paraphyses persistent 24
Paraphyses evanescent 27
24
Corticolous 25
Saxicolous 26
25
Not peeling from substratum, prothallus absent; ostioles of perithecia not gaping–dilated; paraphyses anastomosing, net-like; ascospores 30–300 × 11–65 μm Laurera
Often peeling from substratum or ±easily detached, prothallus often present; ostioles of perithecia often gaping–dilated; paraphyses sparingly branched; ascospores 40–150 × 22–40 μm Porina exocha
26
Often peeling from substratum or ±easily detached, prothallus often present; ostioles of perithecia often gaping–dilated; paraphyses sparingly branched; ascospores 40–150 × 22–40 μm Porina exocha
Not peeling from substratum, prothallus absent; perithecia not gaping–dilated; paraphyses unbranched; ascospores ellipsoidal to subglobose, 19–27.5 × 11.5–17 μm Topelia rosea
27
Corticolous; thallus of small scales, cortical cells papillate (use microscope ×400) Agonimia
Saxicolous; thallus continuous, cortical cells not papillate Polyblastia
28
Exciple fused to thalline rim, blackened; ascospores 1 per ascus, 120–210 × 30–35 μm Ocellularia monosporoides
Exciple detached from thalline rim, not blackened; ascospores 2–8 per ascus, 35–130 × 10–25 μm Thelotrema pr. p.
29
Perithecia present, lacking a thalline rim, disc not formed, apical ostioles present 30
Apothecia present (perithecia-like), with a distinct, overarching thalline rim forming a ±discrete or gaping pore, disc often visible within Thelotrema pr. p.
30
Peritheca discrete; paraphyses anastomosing; ascospores oblong–ellipsoidal, 35–52 × 8–13 μm Anthracothecium cellulosum
Perithecia mostly united (1–4) in a common stroma; paraphyses unbranched; ascospores broadly ellipsoidal, 30–70 × 11–35 μm Pyrenula pr. p.

KEY 6 – CRUSTOSE LICHENS WITH LIRELLATE (OR APPARENTLY LIRELLATE) APOTHECIA

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1
Thallus corticolous 2
Thalus saxicolous Lithographa
2
Ascospores transversely septate or muriform 3
Ascospores simple Xylographa
3
Ascospores transversely septate 4
Ascospores muriform 17
4
Lirellae ±confluent, embedded in ±prominently raised pseudostromata 5
Lirellae ±discrete, not embedded in raised pseudostromata 7
5
Ascospores colourless; apothecial disc epruinose 6
Ascospores brown, 3–5-septate, 17–22 × 6.5–8.5 μm Phaeographis intricans
6
Apothecial disc brown, irregularly branched, radiate–flexuose; ascospores I+ deep-violet, ellipsoidal–fusiform, 5–10-septate, 32–50 × 7–8.5 μm; paraphyses simple Glyphis cicatricosa
Apothecial disc red-brown to black, aggregated or regularly arranged following shape of individual pseudostromata; ascospores I-, acicular, flexuose, 3-septate, 30–55(–70) × 2–3(–4) μm; paraphyses net-like Chiodecton
7
Ascospores colourless or only becoming pale-brown when over-mature 7
Ascospores brown from an early stage 14
8
Ascomata not fissurine 9
Ascomata fissurine (only visible as brownish black or whitish thalline cracks or slits); ascospores I+ violet, 3-septate to muriform Fissurina
9
Ascospores I−, septa thin, locules rhomboid or cuboid; paraphyses branched, anastomosing 10
Ascospores I+ deep blue-violet, septa thick, locules lenticular; paraphyses simple Graphis
10
Asci clavate; ascospores ellipsoidal, fusiform or acicular 11
Asci globose to pyriform; ascospores clavate Arthonia
11
Walls of lirellae (exciple) not carbonised, pale or brownish 12
Walls of lirellae (exciple) markedly carbonised Opegrapha
12
Ascospores 3-septate 13
Ascospores 5–7(–9)-septate Enterographa
13
Thallus saxicolous (coastal rocks); apothecia immersed, punctiform to lirellate, sigmoid or shortly branched, thalline margin appearing as a whitish halo (contrasting with brownish or purplish brown thallus); ascospores fusiform, curved to subsigmoid, 32–45 × 3.5–5 μm Dirina neozelandica
Thallus corticolous; apothecia elongate, lirelliform to stellate; ascospores subsigmoid to straight or slightly curved, 33–38 × 2–3 μm Schismatomma occultum
14
Ascospores I−, 1-septate, septa thin, locules cuboid; paraphyses branched, anastomosing 15
Ascospores I+, septa thick, locules lenticular; paraphyses simple 16
15
Saxicolous; apothecia minute, punctiform, discrete, straight or sinuous; ascospores 20–24 × 10–12 μm Encephalographa otagensis
Corticolous or lichenicolus; apothecia irregular, rounded or elongate, ±contorted Melaspilea
16
Ascospores I+ deep blue-violet, 3–11-septate Phaeographis
Ascospores I+ red-brown, 5-septate, 20–30 × 8–10 μm Leiorreuma exaltatum
17
Ascospores I+ deep blue-violet; paraphyses simple 18
Ascospores I−; paraphyses branched, anastomosing 19
18
Ascospores brown, 28–36 × 10–15 μm Phaeographina arechavaletae
Ascospores colourless, 30–40 × 12–18 μm Thalloloma subvelata
19
Ascomata usually ±innate, with an eroded "rubbed down" appearance; asci ±rounded, 2–8-spored; ascospores colourless or brown Arthothelium
Ascomata prominent, swollen (like scattered, black grains of wheat); asci cylindrical, 8-spored; ascospores colourless, 24–27 × 7–13 Dictyographa cinerea

KEY 7 – CRUSTOSE LICHENS WITH DISCOID APOTHECIA

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1
Ascospores colourless 2
Ascospores brown, grey, greenish blue or black at maturity KEY 7a
2
Ascospores usually 8 or less per asus (if > 32, then thallus yellow), > 4 μm long 3
Ascospores numerous, 40–300 per ascus, minute, < 4 μm long KEY 7b
3
Ascospores simple, rounded to ellipsoidal 4
Ascospores 1- or more-septate (septa sometimes indistinct in acicular ascospores), polarilocular, submuriform or muriform KEY 7c
4
Thallus not yellow 5
Thallus yellow, granular–dispersed, spreading, K−; ascospores 8, 16 or 32 per ascus Candelariella
5
Thalline margin present (containing photobiont), at least in young ascomata 6
Thalline margin absent, proper margin present (without photobiont) 16
6
Cephalodia present on upper surface 7
Cephalodia absent 8
7
Mainly corticolous; apothecia perithecia-like, immersed in hemispherical warts; cephalodia pale, ±concolorous with thallus when dry; thallus K+ yellow- orange, C−; ascospores large, 40–70 × 20–32 μm Coccotrema
Saxicolous or terricolous; apothecia sessile to subpedicellate, discs ±broadly exposed, pale to dark red-brown, pink or blackened; cephalodia yellowish, red-brown or pinkish when dry; thallus K−, C+ pink or red; ascospores thin-walled, 12–30 × 6–21 μm Placopsis pr. p.
8
Ascospores large, 35–350 μm long; paraphyses slender, numerous anastomosing 9
Ascospores < 35 μm long (usually much smaller); paraphyses simple or slightly branched at apices 11
9
Spore wall thick; ascospores 8 or fewer per ascus; ascomata discrete or several together forming irregular, fertile verrucae, or ±immersed; disc small and punctiform to broad and lecanorine 10
Spore wall thin; ascospores (6–)8 per ascus; ascomata always discrete, disc ±widely exposed Ochrolechia
10
Terricolous; thallus ±pruinose; apothecia immersed, urceolate, discrete; ascospores 8 per ascus, 36–52 × 24–30 μm Megaspora verrucosa
Corticolous or saxicolous, rarely terricolous; apothecia innate within verrucae generally elevated above thallus surface, disciform with monocarpic fruits producing single-walled ascospores in lecanorine or sorediate verrucae, or poriform with polycarpic fruits producing double-walled ascospores Pertusaria
11
Apothecia truly lecanorine, thalline margin persistent 12
Apothecia biatorine, bursting through thallus cortex (collar of thallus soon disappearing; cortex C+ red (lecanoric acid) Trapelia
12
Apothecia innate, margins often not evident at maturity 13
Apothecia sessile, margins persistent at maturity 14
13
Thallus lobate at margins, crustose centrally; epithecium red-brown or brown, "Aspicilia-green" absent, N−; paraphyses not moniliform Lobothallia
Thallus rarely or never lobate at margins; epithecium green, "Aspicilia-green" present, N+ green; paraphyses moniliform Aspicilia
14
Hymenium colourless 15
Hymenium purple-red or purple-violet Tephromela atra
15
Thallus green, grey, yellow, white or, if brown, then at least partially densely pruinose; ascus apex with a small, I− axial body Lecanora
Thallus and apothecia pale grey-brown to dark chestnut-brown, glossy, epruinose; ascus apex with a broad, I− axial body Protoparmelia badia
16
Photobiont green; thallus heteromerous, not gelatinous when moist 17
Phytobiont cyanobacterial (Nostoc); thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous when moist, cracking into areolae when dry; apothecia pale pinkish, contrasting with bluish thallus; ascospores 12–15 × 6–7 μm Santessoniella pulchella
17
Ascomata sessile or innate, orange-brown to black 18
Ascomata indistinctly stalked or ±subpedicellate, pale-pink Dibaeis absoluta
18
Ascospores small to medium (< 50 μm long), rarely thick-walled, 8 per ascus 19
Ascospores > 70 μm long, thick-walled, (1–)2 per ascus Mycoblastus
19
Apothecia not bursting through thallus cortex, never with collar of thalline tissue; cortex C− or + red or orange (not lecanoric acid) 20
Apothecia bursting through thallus cortex, pale collar of thalline tissue soon disappearing; cortex C+ rose-red (lecanoric acid) Trapelia
20
Apothecia bright cinnabar-red or orange-red (K+ purple), russulone present 21
Apothecia not cinnabar-red or orange-red (K−), russulone absent 22
21
Hypothecium yellow-brown; ascus Miltidea-type; ascospores distinctly halonate Miltidea ceroplasta
Hypothecium colourless; ascus Lecanora-type; ascospores without a distinct perispore Pyrrhospora
22
Asci with a dark-blue axial tube in K/I (Porpidia-type) 23
Asci without a dark-blue axial tube (Bacidia-, Biatora-, Lecanora-, Lecidea-, Rimularia-, Teloschistes-, Trapelia-, or Tremolecia-type) 31
23
Ascospores greenish brown at maturity 24
Ascospores colourless at maturity 25
24
Laminal cephalodia present (Gloeocapsa); main photobiont arranged in vertical sheets Labyrintha implexa
Laminal cephalodia absent; photobiont not arranged in vertical sheets Poeltidea perusta
25
Not immersed in limestone rocks 26
Immersed in limestone rocks Clauzadea monticola
26
Hypothecium colourless 27
Hypothecium brown to brown-black 29
27
Thallus K−; medulla I+ pale- to dark violet; apothecia sessile to immersed, marginate; ascospores halonate I− 28
Thallus K+ yellow→red (norstictic acid); medulla I+ blue; apothecia immersed (cryptolecanorine); ascospores halonate, perispore I+ blue Bellemerea
28
Thallus yellow (usnic acid), dingy white, pale-grey or creamish; medulla I− or I+ pale-blue or pale-violet; apothecia sessile to subimmersed Poeltiaria
Thallus yellow-brown to dark grey-brown, olive-brown to blackened; medulla I+ dark-violet; apothecia immersed, aspicilioid Immersaria athroocarpa
29
Ascospores halonate 30
Ascospores non-halonate Paraporpidia
30
Apothecia not conglomerate; hypothecium without scattered blue-violet granules; conidia bacillar Porpidia
Apothecia conglomerate (blackberry-like); hypothecium with scattered blue-violet (K+ green) granules; ascospores simple to 1-septate; conidia filiform Mycobilimbia australis
31
Asci Bacidia-type 32
Asci Biatora-, Lecanora-, Lecidea-, Rimularia-, Teloschistes-, Trapelia- or Tremolecia-type 33
32
Thallus nodular, isidioid, papillate, amongst cushions of moss (Andreaea, Racomitrium); apothecia sessile, convex to conglomerate–tuberculate, blue-black to greyish, with a delicate grey-blue bloom; epithecium blue-green; ascospores 25–20(–25) × 5–9 μm; high-alpine Frutidella caesioatra
Thallus areolate, scurfy, creamish white, not associated with moss; apothecia immersed, red-brown, epruinose; epithecium orange to pale-brown; ascospores (13–)15–17(–18) × 7–8(–8.5) μm, apices attenuate; subantarctic on coastal rocks Herteliana australis
33
Asci Lecanora-, Lecidea-, Rimularia-, Teloschistes-, Trapelia-, or Tremolecia- type 34
Asci Biatora-type; thallus white to grey-white, thin, minutely granular, continuous to areolate; apothecia sessile, subconcave, to 0.35 mm diam., pale pinkish or brown-pink; ascospores ovoid, contents granular–oily, 17 × 10 μm Biatora albipraetextata
34
Asci Lecanora-type 35
Asci Lecidea-, Rimularia-, Teloschistes-, Trapelia, or Tremolecia-type 39
35
Hypothecium colourless 36
Hypothecium orange-brown, red-brown, brown-black or black 38
36
Paraphyses lax, simple; apothecia sessile 37
Paraphyses branched–anastomosing; apothecia immersed, aspicilioid Clauzadeana macula
37
Miriquidic acid present Miriquidica
Miriquidic acid absent; epithecium green-black Lecidella pr. p.
38
Hymenium blue-green; proper exciple totally carbonised Carbonea
Hymenium colourless; proper exciple carbonised only in outer parts Lecidella pr. p.
39
Asci Lecidea-type 40
Asci Rimularia-, Teloschistes-, Trapelia- or Tremolecia-type 41
40
On limestone; thallus thick, whitish tartareous; apothecia innate, disc black with a grey-white pruina; hypotheciun brown-black Rhizolecia hybrida
On acid rocks; apothecia sessile; hypothecium colourless to dark-brown Lecidea
41
Asci Teloschistes-, Trapelia- or Tremolecia-type; apothecial discs not umbonate–gyrose 42
Asci Rimularia-type; anastomosing moniliform paraphyses; a well-developed exciple of pseudoparenchymatous cells; umbonate to gyrose apothecial discs; large, non-halonate ascospores Rimularia
42
Asci Trapelia- or Tremolecia-type; hymenium colourless, not streaked with brown pigments 43
Asci Teloschistes-type; thallus dark-brown; apothecia lecideine to aspicilioid, discs dark-brown to black; epithecium brown; hymenium streaked with brown pigments Fuscidea
43
Asci Trapelia-type (amyloid structures present) 44
Asci Tremolecia-type (amyloid structures absent); thallus small, rust-coloured, delimited at margins by a black prothallus; apothecia subimmersed to immersed, black, epruinose; hypothecium dark-brown; ascospores ellipsoidal, 10–14 × 6–9 μm Tremolecia atrata
44
Apothecia urceolate or aspicilioid; disc concave to flat, at or below level of thallus surface; paraphyses lax; asci without an apical amyloid dome; on rocks Schaereria
Apothecia emergent to sessile; disc flat to convex at maturity, raised above level of thallus surface; on rocks, soil, rotting or decorticated wood Trapelia

KEY 7a: Crustose lichens with discoid apothecia; ascospores brown, grey, greenish blue or black at maturity

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1
Ascospores 1–3–5-septate or polarilocular 2
Ascospores submuriform or muriform 7
2
Ascospores 1-septate 3
Ascospores 3–5-septate 7
3
Apothecia without a thalline margin; ascospores 1– pluri-septate 4
Apothecia with a thalline margin; ascospores polarilocular Rinodina
4
Ascospores 1-septate 5
Ascospores pluri-septate 6
5
Ascospores not halonate Buellia
Ascospores halonate Rhizocarpon pr. p.
6
Thallus thick, white to ochraceous, warted; C−; ascospores 3-septate to submuriform Diplotomma
Thallus scurfy, yellowish; C+ red; ascospores 3–5-septate, halonate, warted Lecanographa abscondita
7
Apothecia urceolate, with a thalline margin; thallus C+ red (lecanoric acid) 8
Apothecia not urceolate; thallus C− or pale orange-red (gyrophoric acid) 9
8
Proper exciple present Diploschistes
Proper exciple absent Ingvariella bispora
9
Apothecia ±immersed then emergent, thalline rim incurved, suberect or recurved forming a distinct pore 10
Apothecia sessile, not enclosed in thalline tissue forming a pore 11
10
Exciple detached from thalline rim, not blackened; ascospores 1–2 per ascus, 95–190 × 25–42 μm Thelotrema pr. p.
Exciple fused to thalline rim, blackened; ascospores 1 per ascus, 120–210 × 30–35 μm Ocellularia monosporoides
11
Apothecia not in thalline verrucae; ascospores 8 per ascus 12
Apothecia crowded into convoluted, ±cerebriform thalline verrucae; ascospores 1 (rarely 2) per ascus, 60–240 × 32–100 μm Tremotylium
12
Thallus subarachnoid, granular–scurfy, white or grey-white, not areolate; ascospores oblong–ellipsoidal to fabiform, submuriform (sometimes 3–5-septate); paraphyses ±simple; on weathered limestone Diplotomma alboatrum
Thallus distinctly areolate, not granular–scurfy, yellow-green, ashy grey or brownish, rarely white; ascospores ovoid or broadly ellipsoidal; paraphyses conglutinate, netted; on acid rocks, rarely on limestone Rhizocarpon

KEY 7b: Crustose lichens with discoid apothecia; ascospores hyaline, 40–300 per ascus

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1
Apothecia lecanorine (margins containing photobiont) 2
Apothecia lecideine or biatorine (margins without photobiont) 3
2
Saxicolous or terricolous; thallus areolate to subsquamulose; apothecia ± innate Acarospora
Corticolous; thallus crustose forming neat, well-defined patches; apothecia sessile Maronea constans
3
Corticolous 4
Saxicolous 6
4
Thallus effuse; soralia absent 5
Thallus granular–arachnoid; soredia present; apothecia brown or brown-black Biatorella desmaspora
5
Apothecia pale yellow-pink Biatoridium delitescens
Apothecia dark brown-black Strangospora deplanata
6
On basic substrata (limestone, calcareous sandstone, concrete etc.); thallus indistinct; prothallus absent; C− 7
On high-alpine, acid rocks; thallus yellow-grey to pale brown-grey, areolate, in well-defined patches; black, marginal prothallus prominent; apothecia immersed; asci Catillaria-type; C+ red (gyrophoric acid) Sporastatia testudinea
7
Apothecia gyrose–contorted or fissured, black, epruinose, proper margin often obscuring disc Polysporina simplex
Apothecia plane, not obscured by black proper margin, disc blue-black, not gyrose–contorted, often grey-pruinose Sarcogyne regularis

Key 7c: Crustose lichens with discoid apothecia; ascospores hyaline, 1- or more-septate, polarilocular, submuriform or muriform

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1
Ascospores 1-septate or polarilocular 2
Ascospores 2- or multi-septate, submuriform or muriform 20
2
Ascospores polarilocular, septum thick, perforated by a narrow, median channel 3
Ascospores not polarilocular, septum thin, continuous 4
3
Epithecium K+ purple-red (parietin); ascospores 9–17 × 4.5–9 μm Caloplaca
Epithecium not K+ purple-red; ascospores 24–40 × 14–24 μm Megaloblastenia
4
Thallus yellow or yellow-orange 5
Thallus green, yellow-green, white, creamish, grey, brown or black, never yellow-orange 6
5
Thallus orbicular, ±placodioid, marginal lobes clearly differentiated, inner part of thallus remaining intact; thallus and apothecial discs K+ purple (parietin); ascospores 8 per ascus Fulgensia
Thallus granular–dispersed, spreading, not placodioid; thallus and apothecial discs K−; ascospores 8, 16 or 32 per ascus Candelariella
6
Thallus saxicolous or terricolous 7
Thallus corticolous or lignicolous 13
7
Thallus saxicolous, lowland 8
Thallus terricolous, subalpine to high-alpine 12
8
Asci Catillaria-type; hamathecium of simple paraphyses 9
Asci Lecanora-type; paraphyses simple or branched and anastomosing 11
9
Ascospores without a perispore 10
Ascospores with a perispore up to 2 μm thick Halecania
10
Thallus crustose, margins not lobed Catillaria
Thallus minutely squamulose–hummocky, margins delicately scalloped to minutely lobulate; ascospores 15–18(–20) × 3.5–5 μm, vacuolate and appearing 4- or more-septate; on coastal rocks Solenopsora sordida
11
Apothecia lecideine; hamathecium of branched, anastomosing paraphyses; atranorin present; on coastal rocks Tylothallia pahiensis
Apothecia biatorine; hamathecium of simple paraphyses; epithecial pigments K+ green, N+ red; atranorin absent Megalaria pr. p.
12
Apothecia black; on decaying alpine vegetation Catillaria contristans
Apothecia pink; on exposed clay and rotting wood Icmadophila ericetorum
13
Thallus corticolous 14
Thallus lignicolous (tops of tanalised fenceposts etc.) Lecania erysibe
14
Asci 8-spored 15
Asci 8–12–16-spored Lecania cyrtella
15
Thallus crustose, continuous 16
Thallus of scattered to densely aggregated goniocysts Micarea
16
Apothecial discs pale or coloured, at least when young 17
Apothecial discs red-brown, brown-black or black 19
17
Apothecia yellowish, orange, red-brown or mustard-yellow, never blackened; ascospores fusiform–ellipsoidal; pycnidial walls not K+ purple 18
Apothecia brown-pink, piebald to blackened; ascospores oblong–ellipsoidal; pycnidial walls K+ purple Cliostomum griffithii
18
Apothecia mustard-yellow (K+ purple-red), immarginate; ascospores 15–22 μm long; photobiont Chlorococcaceae Stirtoniella kelica
Apothecia yellow, orange or red-brown (K−), marginate; ascospores 6–14 μm long; photobiont Trentepohlia Coenogonium pr. p.
19
Hymenium inspersed with oil droplets; ascospores large, 30–165 μm long Megalospora
Hymenium not inspersed with oil droplets; ascospores not > 30 μm long Megalaria
20
Ascospores 2- to multi-septate (rarely acicular with obscure septa) 21
Ascospores submuriform or muriform 48
21
Thallus terricolous/muscicolous 22
Thallus corticolous or saxicolous 25
22
Ascospores oblong–ellipsoidal; thallus not vivid sulphur-yellow 23
Ascospores acicular; thallus vivid sulphur-yellow; on subalpine to high-alpine soils Arthrorhaphis pr. p.
23
Thallus effuse or scurfy; ascospores fusiform to acicular, 3–16-septate; norstictic acid absent; on clay and soils 24
Thallus grey-brown, granular; ascospores ellipsoidal to fusiform, simple to 2–4-septate; norstictic acid present (K+ yellow→red); on alpine bryophytes and plant detritus Bryonora castanea
24
Photobiont Micareoid; ascospores ellipsoidal to fusiform, 3-septate Micarea pr. p
Photobiont Trebouxioid; ascospores fusiform to acicular 3- to 14–16-septate Bacidia pr. p.
25
Thallus corticolous or lignicolous 26
Thallus saxicolous 41
26
Apothecia translucent when moist; ascospores 8–32 per ascus 27
Apothecia not translucent when moist; ascospores 8 (rarely 1) per ascus 28
27
Ascospores acicular, 9–15-septate, 8–32 per ascus, 68–80 × 3–4 μm Pachyphiale carneola
Ascospores fusiform, 5–7-septate, 12–16 per ascus Cryptolechia myriadella
28
Ascospores 3-septate 29
Ascospores 5–26-septate 35
29
Ascospores not spirally contorted 30
Ascospores spirally contorted Scoliciosporum lividum
30
Apothecia with a thalline margin 31
Apothecia without a thalline margin 33
31
Ascospores thin-walled 32
Ascospores ovoid, thick-walled Caloplaca homologa
32
Apothecial discs rounded, red, or pink, sometimes white-pruinose; on twigs and tree trunks Haematomma pr. p.
Apothecial discs irregular, ±stellate, furcate or lirellate, black or brownish; on dry bark of old trees Schismatomma occultum
33
Apothecia sessile 34
Apothecia distinctly urceolate, 1–4 per areola; ascospores 1–3-septate, fusiform, often curved, 16–32 × 4–5 μm Lecania vallata
34
Apothecia grey-white-pruinose; photobiont Trentepohlia; ascospores thin-walled, 20–40 μm long Lecanactis pr. p.
Apothecia brown to dark-brown-epruinose; photobiont Dictyochloropsis; ascospores thick-walled, 40–80 μm long Austroblastenia pauciseptata
35
Apothecia ±immersed at first then emergent, thalline rim overarching, often forming a central pore 36
Apothecia sessile, thalline rim never overarching, without a central pore 37
36
Exciple fused to thalline rim, carbonised; ascospores 5–9-septate, 26–34 × 8–8.3 μm Ocellularia hians
Exciple detached, not fused to thalline rim, not carbonised Thelotrema pr. p.
37
Thalline margin (containing photobiont) present 38
Thalline margin absent 39
38
Apothecia sessile; disc rounded red, pink or orange, sometimes white-pruinose; thallus not arachnoid Haematomma
Apothecia ±innate or ±level with thallus surface, round to irregular; disc ±white- pruinose and often appearing soredia-like, concolorous with thallus or paler; thallus ±arachnoid, whitish, pale-green or grey Phlyctis
39
Apothecia margins not byssoid; ascospores not halonate 40
Apothecial margins byssoid; ascospores halonate, 5-septate, 15–18 × 4.5 μm; lignicolous Byssoloma adspersum
40
Ascospores narrowly acicular, 3–7-septate, 60–85 × 1.5–1.7 μm; terricolous and on rotting wood Micarea flagellispora
Ascospores 10–45-septate, 40–175 μm long Bactrospora
41
Ascospores 3-septate 42
Ascospores 4–7-septate 47
42
Ascospores not spirally contorted 43
Ascospores spirally contorted Scoliciosporum umbrinum
43
Thalline margin absent 44
Thalline margin present; disc red, with or without a white pruina Haematomma
44
Hyphophores absent 45
Hyphophores present Lithogyalideopsis zeylandica
45
Apothecia not translucent when moist 46
Apothecia translucent when moist; discs pale yellow-brown or pinkish brown Gyalidea pr. p.
46
Ascospores halonate, 16–28 × 8–10 μm; thallus grey-brown to dark grey; with a prominent black, marginal prothallus Rhizocarpon submodestum
Ascospores not halonate, 10–13 × 3.5–5 μm; thallus filmy, minutely granular or effuse; prothallus absent Bacidia allotropa
47
Apothecial margins byssoid (×10 lens); ascospores 5–7-septate Byssoloma octomerum
Apothecial margins not byssoid; ascospores 4–5-septate Bacidia pr. p.
48
Apothecia ±immersed at first becoming emergent; thalline rim incurved, suberect or recurved forming a distinct pore 49
Apothecia sessile, not enclosed in thalline tissue forming a pore 50
49
Exciple fused to thalline rim, blackened; ascospores 1 per ascus, 120–210 × 30–35 μm Ocellularia monosporoides
Exciple detached from rim, not blackened; ascospores 2–8 per ascus, 50–104 × 15–24 μm Thelotrema pr. p.
50
Apothecia translucent when moist 51
Apothecia not translucent when moist 52
51
Muscicolous; hyphophores present; ascospores 22–25 × 10–14 μm Jamesiella anastomosans
Saxicolous; hyphophores absent; ascospores 14–24 × 6–10 μm Gyalidea pr. p.
52
Corticolous 53
Muscicolous, terricolous or saxicolous 57
53
Ascospores 4–8 per ascus 54
Ascospores 1 per ascus Lopadium monosporum
54
Apothecial discs K− 55
Apothecial disc K+ purple-red Brigantiaea
55
Apothecial margins not fissured or Geaster-like 56
Apothecial margins, fissured, Geaster-like Chroodiscus
56
Thallus pale green-grey, matt, PD+ orange (pannarin); apothecia brown, pruinose; ascospores ovoid, transverse septa thick, 45–80 × 23–32 μm; photobiont Dictyochloropsis Austroblastenia pupa
Thallus yellow-grey to glaucous-brown, Pd−; apothecia red-brown to black, epruinose; ascospores oblong–cylindrical, transverse septa thin,75–110 × 9–14 μm; photobiont Trentepohlia Bactrospora metabola
57
Saxicolous 58
Terricolous/muscicolous 59
58
Apothecia sessile, black, margins entire; ascospores halonate Rhizocarpon pr. p.
Apothecia erumpent, margins splitting, recurved, Geaster-like; ascospores not halonate Chroodiscus megalophthalmus
59
Terricolous, on high-alpine soils; thallus white, granular verrucose; apothecia mustard-yellow to orange (K+ purple); ascospores 1 per ascus, 48–105(–120) × 25–45(–55) μm Brigantiaea fuscolutea
Muscicolous, in lowland forests; thallus whitish to grey-green, effuse; apothecia perithecioid to gyalectoid; disc pinkish, radially fissured, K−; ascospores 1 per ascus, 100–270 × 25–60 μm Topeliopsis muscigena

KEY 8 – FILAMENTOUS LICHENS

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1
Thallus black, blue-black or brownish black 2
Thallus green, blue-green or pale 8
2
Photobiont green, Trentepohlia 3
Photobiont cyanobacterial 4
3
Mycobiont hyphae (compound microscope) contorted Cystocoleus ebeneus
Mycobiont hyphae straight, longitudinally arranged Racodium rupestre
4
Thallus tufted, in small, pulvinate rosettes; on limestone 5
Thallus ±straggling, coralline; on acid rocks or bark 6
5
Asci (16–)24-spored Zahlbrucknerella
Asci 8-spored Hertella neozelandica
6
On bark 7
On rock in pulvinate clumps or mats; glossy olive-green or black Ephebe
7
Thallus blue-green; rhizines present; photobiont Hyphomorpha; ascospores not seen Spilonema dendroides
Thallus brownish black; rhizines absent; photobiont Scytonema; ascospores muriform, brown-black Pyrenothrix nigra
8
Thallus pale-green, olive or whitish, felted or woolly, not shelf-like, not zonate; ascomata present 9
Thallus blue-green, fibrillose, shelf-like, zonate; basidiomata irregularly spreading, whitish or creamish, on underside of thallus Dictyonema
9
Thallus whitish, grey-white or yellow-white, woolly, byssoid; ascospores simple to 5–6-septate 10
Thallus pale-green to olive-yellow, felt-like or fluffy; apothecia orange-yellow; ascospores 1-septate Coenogonium implexum
10
Thallus grey-white, greenish white, yellowish, pinkish or orange-green; apothecia subpedicellate or barrel-shaped; ascospores septate 11
Thallus white; apothecia sessile, small (0.3–0.4 mm diam.), pale-pink, immarginate; ascospores simple, 22–30 × 3–8 μm Roccellinastrum neglectum
11
Thallus whitish to pinkish or orange-green; apothecia barrel-shaped, with dentate–stellate margins; ascospores filiform–acicular, 80–100-septate Conotremopsis weberiana
Thallus grey-white, greenish white or yellowish white; apothecia subpedicellate, white-pruinose; ascospores fusiform, 5-septate Sagenidium molle

KEY 9 – PLACODIOID LICHENS

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1
Thallus orange, yellow-orange or reddish 2
Thallus never orange, yellow-orange or reddish 4
2
Thallus and apothecia K+ purple 3
Thallus and apothecia K− Candelaria concolor
3
Lower cortex present Xanthoria elegans
Lower cortex absent Caloplaca pr. p.
4
Photobiont cyanobacterial 5
Photobiont green 6
5
Thallus blue-black, ± papillate; on limestone Placynthium nigrum
Thallus blue-grey to ±olivaceous, matt or scabrid; on subalpine to alpine soils, or acid rocks Steinera
6
Cephalodia absent; cortex C− 7
Cephalodia present; cortex C+ red or pink; on soil and rocks Placopsis pr. p.
7
Thallus buff-brown to blackish, not pruinose; ascomata perithecia; intertidal Verrucaria durietzii
Thallus white to pale grey-white, often pruinose; asomata apothecia; rare; above high tide mark Diplotomma canescens

KEY 10 – SQUAMULOSE LICHENS

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1
Photobiont cyanobacterial 2
Photobiont green (sometimes with a secondary, cyanobacterial photobiont present in external cephalodia) 15
2
Thallus attached over whole of lower surface, without a central umbilicus; sorediate or fertile; ascospores 8 per ascus 3
Thallus attached by a central umbilicus; apothecia rare, immersed; ascospores 60–100 per ascus; thallus sorediate Peltula euploca
3
Cyanobiont penetrating into subhymenial layers 4
Cyanobiont not in subhymenial layers 5
4
Thallus subfoliose, bluish; upper surface arachnoid; asci with an I+ blue apical cap Leioderma
Thallus squamulose, brownish; upper surface at most scabrid; asci without I+ blue apical cap Fuscoderma
5
Marginal prothallus often present, blue-grey or blue-green or fawn above; squamules variable, ±flattened or undulate, rounded to crenate, scattered to imbricate; ascospores simple 6
Marginal prothallus absent; squamules red-brown or grey-brown, elongate, ascending, crowded–imbricate; ascospores 1–2-septate Massalongia carnosa
6
Apothecia without a thalline margin 7
Apothecia normally with a thalline margin 13
7
Hymenium hemiamyloid, finally red-brown 8
Hymenium amyloid, consistently blue 11
8
Thallus not gelatinous; cortex only on upper surface 9
Thallus gelatinous; corticate on both surfaces Santessoniella pulchella
9
Thallus Pd−; cortex paraplectenchymatous 10
Thallus Pd+; cortex sclerenchymatous Siphulastrum
10
Thallus small-squamulose; apothecia surrounded by a weft of hyphae Austrella brunnea
Thallus rosette-forming–placodioid; apothecia not surrounded by a weft of hyphae Degeliella
11
Thallus small-squamulose; medulla of unorientated hyphae; asci with tubular, amyloid apical structures 12
Thallus placodioid; medulla dense, of parallel hyphae; asci with tubular, amyloid apical structures Degelia
12
Thallus with a green primary photobiont; cyanobacteria present in external cephalodia Psoromidium aleuroides
Thallus with a cyanobiont; without cephalodia Parmeliella
13
Thallus crustose to small-squamulose; hymenium not I+ blue; asci with amyloid apical structures 14
Thallus squamulose to subfoliose; hymenium I+ blue; asci without amyloid apical structures Pannaria
14
Apothecia with a distinct thalline margin; ascospores markedly warted; hymenium I+ dirty blackish blue Psoroma
Apothecia with a variable thalline margin, sometimes poorly developed;ascospores at most uneven; hymenium I+ blue-green turning red-brown Fuscopannaria
15
External cephalodia present; ascospores with a roughened wall, sometimes one or both ends apiculate 16
External cephalodia absent; ascospores smooth-walled, not apiculate 19
16
Ascospores colourless, simple, 8 per ascus 17
Ascospores brown, 1-septate, 4 per ascus; cephalodia imbricate, coralloid or squamiform, surrounding urceolate apothecia; on alpine, calcareous soils Solorina spongiosa
17
Apothecia without a thalline margin (without photobiont in margin) 18
Apothecia with a thalline margin (containing photobiont) Pannaria (green)
18
Hymenium hemiamyloid, finally red-brown Degeliella versicolor
Hymenium amyloid, consistently blue Psoromidium aleuroides
19
Thallus dimorphic, with primary squamules and secondary, erect, simple or branched structures (podetia) bearing apothecia 20
Thallus uniform; ascomata sessile, innate or absent 24
20
Secondary thallus if present, hollow 21
Secondary thallus if present, solid 22
21
Squamules minute, sorediate, granular–furfuraceous; walls of podetia if present perforate; apothecia minute, peltate, black Cladia schizopora
Squamules 0.4–2 mm diam., not granular–furfuraceous Cladonia
22
Squamules and podetia yellow-green or yellow-brown (usnic acid present); podetia ridged–striate–fissured; apothecia tallow-pink or brownish, never black 23
Squamules and podetia pale-green or olive-brown, never yellowish (usnic acid absent); podetia uniformly terete, finger-like, not ridged, striate or fissured; apothecia black Neophyllis melacarpa
23
Apothecia large (2–6 mm diam.), ±flattened–undulate, spathulate, disc ventral Thysanothecium
Apothecia minute (0.05–0.3–0.8 mm diam.), clustered–peltate Notocladonia
24
Squamules not shell-like, overlapping or contiguous 25
Squamules shell-like, small, green to grey-blue, often discrete or overlapping, sorediate; ascomata unknown Normandina pulchella
25
Thallus yellow or yellow-orange; K− 26
Thallus not yellow or yellow-orange; K+ or − 27
26
Thallus ±lobulate–crustose, granular–dispersed, marginal lobes indistinct Candelariella
Thallus minutely but distinctly lobate, especially at margins, ±densely granular– sorediate Candelaria concolor
27
Thallus without a rooting system of rhizinomorphs; ascomata present or absent 28
Thallus with well-developed rooting system of rhizinomorphs; ascomata unknown Siphula
28
Ascomata perithecia 29
Ascomata apothecia 30
29
Hymenial algae present; ascospores 1–2 per ascus, muriform, brown Endocarpon
Hymenial algae absent; ascospores 8 per ascus, simple, colourless Catapyrenium
30
Ascospores simple 31
Ascospores septate 38
31
Cephalodia absent; apothecia lecideine or zeorine; ascospores wall smooth 32
Cephalodia present; apothecia lecanorine; ascospore wall roughened–ornamented Pannaria pr. p.
32
Apothecia lecideine 33
Apothecia zeorine, immersed in verrucae, Pertusaria-like; ascospores thick-walled, 50–65 × 25–30 μm; on alpine soils Megaspora verrucosa
33
Marginal; prothallus absent, or if present, pale whitish or reddish 34
Marginal prothallus present, black; thallus dark brown-black; terricolous Lecidoma demissum
34
Thallus ±peltate or shell-like, 1.5–6 mm diam.; apothecia black or brown-black; hypothecium shallow 35
Thallus microphylline, ±coralloid; apothecia brown, orange-red or red-brown; hypothecium massive, chondroid Phyllopsora
35
Saxicolous/terricolous 36
Corticolous /lignicolous, on charred wood 37
36
Squamules 3–6 mm diam., concave, contiguous or scattered, salmon-pink to chestnut- brown or yellow-brown, often white-pruinose to coarsely crystalline; apothecia marginal, convex, black Psora
Squamules 1.5–2 mm diam., convex, imbricate, ascending, glaucous-green to pale greyish or fawn-grey, somewhat scabrid, occasionally sorediate; lower cortex orange-brown or yellowish; apothecia confluent, purplish black Trapeliopsis colensoi
37
Corticolous, on rotting wood; thallus green, microphylline; apothecia conglomerate–confluent, rust-red Trapeliopsis congregans
Lignicolous, on charred wood; apothecia when present black Hypocenomyce
38
Thallus lettuce-green, not pruinose, rosette-forming, white below; apothecia pink; ascospores 1-septate Icmadophila splachnirima
Thallus white, yellow-brown, red-brown, grey or blackish, often white-pruinose lobulate, hummocky to ±granular–areolate; apothecia black; ascospores 1–3(–7)-septate Toninia

KEY 11 – FOLIOSE LICHENS

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1
Lower surface with cyphellae or pseudocyphellae 2
Lower surface without cyphellae or pseudocyphellae 3
2
Lower surface with cyphellae Sticta
Lower surface with pseudocyphellae Pseudocyphellaria
3
Ascomata when present, on upper surface or marginal, or ascomata absent 4
Ascomata when present, on lower surface of ±ascending lobe apices Nephroma
4
Photobiont cyanobacterial 5
Photobiont green 21
5
Thallus homoiomerous, often gelatinous and ±blackish when wet, blue-grey, brown, black or green-black when dry 6
Thallus heteromerous, not gelatinous, mainly dark blue-grey when wet, pale greyish, yellow-green or olivaceous when dry 8
6
Thallus soft, pliant when wet, ±crisp, fragile when dry; ascospores septate or muriform 7
Thallus tough, cartilaginous and ridged even when wet; ascospores simple Physma
7
Thallus usually brown-black or greenish black, often swollen when wet; cellular cortex on upper and lower surfaces absent (microscope); without hairs on lower surface Collema
Thallus blue-grey, brownish or greyish black, not generally swollen when wet; often with pale hairs on lower (rarely also on upper) surface; cortex of 1-cell thickness on upper and lower surfaces (microscope) Leptogium
8
Thallus ±peltate, attached by a central umbilicus; sorediate 9
Thallus variously attached, without a central umbilicus; with or without soredia 10
9
Lower surface smooth, pale-buff to brown-red; ascospores simple, 100+ per ascus; in dry, ±arid habitats Peltula euploca
Lower surface corrugate–faveolate, white; ascospores 2–3-septate, 8 per ascus; subantarctic, subalpine Peltularia crassa
10
Lower surface without veins 11
Lower surface ±distinctly veined; ascomata marginal; ascospores elongate, septate, colourless Peltigera
11
Thallus not coralloid, ±rosette-forming or lobate; ascomata sessile to subpedicellate, on lamina or at margins or on lower surface of lobes; ascospores colourless 12
Thallus mainly of thin, coralloid to squamulose, blue-green cephalodia surrounding ±urceolate ascomata with a thin margin containing green algae; ascospores brown, 1-septate Solorina spongiosa
12
Thallus ±rosette-forming, ±closely attached; with or without a distinct, marginal prothallus 13
Thallus lobate, often loosely attached; without a marginal prothallus 20
13
Upper surface scabrid–areolate (×10 lens), or ±hairy 14
Upper surface smooth, matt, not scabrid–areolate or hairy 16
14
Upper surface scabrid–areolate or verrucose; ascomata lecideine (without photobiont cells in margin) 15
Upper surface hairy; ascomata lecanorine (with photobiont cells in margin) Erioderma
15
Upper surface brownish; lower surface normally without rhizohyphae but with woolly buff to brown tomentum; hymenium I+ blue only around asci; ascus apex without apical amyloid structures; photobiont Nostoc Fuscoderma
Upper surface greyish; lower surface with white to blue-black rhizohyphae; hymenium I+ blue; ascus apex with a distinct I+ blue cap; photobiont Scytonema Leioderma
16
Thallus not placodioid at margins; ascomata sessile; ascospores simple 17
Thallus ±placodioid, especially at margins; ascomata ±innate; ascospores septate Steinera
17
Thallus thick, coriaceous, ±uniform; lobes cuneate–flabellate with dense pale or blue- black rhizohyphae below but without a distinct, felted prothallus 18
Thallus thin, often uneven-ridged or wrinkled; lobes not cuneate–flabellate; often with a distinct, blue-black, felted, marginal prothallus 19
18
Ascomata adnate, biatorine, often irregular in outline, without proper or thalline margins; asci with or without apical (or external) amyloid cap or ring structures Coccocarpia
Ascomata sessile, regular in outline, with a visible proper margin, thalline margin present or absent; asci with apical amyloid sheets Degelia
19
Ascomata lecanorine (photobiont cells present in margin); asci without apical amyloid structures; pannarin present (Pd+) Pannaria
Ascomata lecideine (photobiont cells not present in margin); asci with apical amyloid tubes; pannarin absent (Pd−) Parmeliella
20
Upper surface sorediate, isidia absent; lower surface with naked patches scattered amongst pale- to dark-brown tomentum; tomentum of two kinds; scrobiculin, usnic acid and stictic acid chemosyndrome present Lobarina scrobiculata
Upper surface isidiate, soredia absent; lower surface with a reticulate, dark tomentum; triterpenoids present, usnic acid and scrobiculin absent Lobaria pr. p.
21
Thallus heteromerous 22
Thallus homoiomerous, plates of Prasiola; ascomata perithecia Mastodia tessellata
22
Thallus variously attached or free, without a central umbilicus 23
Thallus attached by a central umbilicus Umbilicaria
23
Thallus not submonophyllous; ascomata apothecia, or sterile 24
Thallus irregularly submonophyllous; ascomata perithecia, ostioles visible as numerous black dots on upper surface; on wet rocks Dermatocarpon miniatum var. complicatum
24
Thallus attached to substratum, not curling up into balls when dry 25
Thallus unattached, ±flattened when moist, curling up into balls when dry Xanthoparmelia semiviridis
25
Spongy, dense, brown-black, woolly hypothallus present on lower surface 26
Spongy hypothallus absent from lower surface; lower surface naked or with well- defined rhizines 27
26
Hypothallus continuous over lower surface; upper surface greyish, usnic acid absent Anzia
Hypothallus discontinuous, in bead-like patches; upper surface yellowish, usnic acid present Pannoparmelia
27
Cephalodia absent from upper surface 28
Cephalodia present on upper (rarely also on lower) surface Pannaria pr. p.
28
Thallus yellow-orange 29
Thallus otherwise coloured, not yellow-orange 33
30
Thallus K+ purple 31
Thallus K− Candelaria concolor
31
Marginal cilia or fibrils absent 32
Marginal cilia or fibrils present Teloschistes
32
Conidia simple ellipsoidal; lower surface wrinkled, with hapters but without well- developed rhizines; apothecial margins not rhizinate Xanthoria
Conidia bacillar; lower surface and apothecial margins with well-developed rhizines Xanthomendoza novozelandica
33
Thallus hollow, or if solid then lobes ±terete, inflated 34
Thallus not inflated, medulla ±solid 35
34
Upper surface with distinctive perforations (rarely imperforate, and then with isidia); ascospores large, thick-walled, 2 or 8 per ascus; physodic acid absent Menegazzia
Upper surface without perforations or isidia; ascospores small, 8 per ascus; physodic acid present Hypogymnia
35
Lower surface with numerous, well-developed rhizines 36
Lower surface not or sparingly rhizinate, naked or tomentose or pubescent 60
36
Lower surface and margins not vivid orange 37
Lower surface and margins vivid orange, K+ purple; high-alpine, on soil Solorina crocea
37
Upper surface with pseudocyphellae (×10 lens) 38
Upper surface without pseudocyphellae 39
38
Pseudocyphellae ±elongate, often forming a coarse reticulum; medulla K+, C− Parmelia
Pseudocyphellae punctiform, scattered, not forming a coarse reticulum; medulla K−, C+ (rose-pink or red) Punctelia
39
Thallus straw-yellow or yellow-green (usnic acid present) 40
Thallus not yellow or yellow-green (usnic acid absent) 44
40
Lobes ±flat, evenly attached, not or rarely ascending; lower surface corticate, not felt-like or with veins 41
Lobes ±ascending (6–10 mm wide), densely rhizinate below, rhizines felted, with a network of veins; on soil Heterodea muelleri
41
Primary and marginal lobes broad, widest lobes > 2 mm wide 42
Primary and marginal lobes narrow, < 2 mm wide 43
42
Lobes apically rotund or subrotund; ascospores large, 12–21 × 5–11 μm Flavoparmelia
Lobes ±apically incised; ascospores small, 5.5–14 × 3.5–8 μm Xanthoparmelia pr. p.
43
On rocks, soil, glass, slate, tiles rarely spreading onto mosses; apothecia laminal; ascospores colourless, simple Xanthoparmelia pr. p.
On bark or twigs, rarely on rocks; apothecia on lower surface of marginal lobes; ascospores reddish brown, 3-septate Nephroma australe
44
Lobes with marginal cilia 45
Lobes without marginal cilia 51
45
Lobes narrow, < 8 mm wide 46
Lobes broad, rounded (10–30 mm wide), with a broad, brown, naked, marginal zone on lower surface; upper surface often maculate (×10 lens) Parmotrema
46
Lobes strap-like or ribbon-like, ±canaliculate 47
Lobes irregularly to subdichotomously branching, not canaliculate 49
47
Lobes 2–10 mm wide; upper surface smooth, not fibrous, olive-brown or grey-white; medulla K + or − 48
Lobes 0.4–1.5 mm wide, loosely dichotomously branching; upper surface fibrous without maculae; lower surface ecorticate, arachnoid, with subapical soralia; medulla K− Heterodermia leucomela
48
Lobes 4–8 mm wide, dichotomously branching; upper surface maculate (×10 lens), grey or grey-white, sorediate at apices; lower surface shining, corticate; medulla K+ yellow→red (salazinic acid) Everniastrum sorocheilum
Lobes 2–10 mm wide, loosely tufted, not dichotomously branching; upper surface emaculate, olive-brown or brown; soredia marginal; lower surface pale-brown, rhizinate centrally; medulla K− (protolichesterinic acid) Tuckermanopsis chlorophylla
49
Thallus closely attached even at apices; lobes 1–4 mm wide, sublinear to subirregular; lower surface ivory to black; rhizines black, simple to squarrose ; ascospores simple, colourless 50
Thallus adnate to ascending; lobes 0.5–1 mm wide; lower surface white; rhizines whitish or darkening, simple; ascospores 1-septate, brown Physcia adscendens
50
Lobe apices truncate; cilia mostly evenly dispersed; some rhizines furcate to squarrose or dichotomously branching Parmelinopsis
Lobes subrotund to rotund; cilia mainly in lobe axils; rhizines simple or rarely squarrose Parmelina
51
Thallus dark olive-brown, red-brown or brown-black 52
Thallus white, pale-grey, grey-brown or grey-green 54
52
Corticolous; cortex HNO3− 53
Saxicolous; cortex HNO3+ blue-green or violet Xanthoparmelia pr. p. (brown)
53
Pseudocyphellae present on upper surface on warts or on tips of isidia Melanohalea
Pseudocyphellae absent Melanelia
54
Upper cortex cellular not fibrous, cortex of anticlinally arranged hyphae 55
Upper cortex fibrous, of periclinally arranged hyphae (microscope) Heterodermia
55
Ascospores colourless, simple, thin-walled 56
Ascospores brown, thick-walled, 1-septate 58
56
Lower surface erhizinate at margins; rhizines simple or tufted 57
Lower surface rhizinate to margins; rhizines dichotomously or squarrosely branched (often projecting); lobe apices truncate Hypotrachyna
57
Lobes broad, (often > 10 mm wide); lower surface with a broad, naked marginal zone (> 1 mm wide) Parmotrema pr. p
Lobes narrow (0.5–3 mm wide); lower surface with a narrow, naked marginal zone (< 1 mm wide) Canoparmelia
58
Thallus UV−, lichexanthone absent 59
Thallus UV+ golden yellow, lichexanthone present Pyxine
59
Thallus greyish, colour little changed when wet; upper surface K+ yellow (atranorin) Physcia
Thallus brownish, greenish or greyish, becoming greenish when wet, K− Phaeophyscia
60
Lower surface ±glabrous 61
Lower surface tomentose 64
61
Apothecia when present, on upper surface of thallus 62
Apothecia when present, on lower surface of marginal lobes Nephroma pr. p.
62
Lower surface pale ivory, brown or black, never white; margins ciliate; mazedium absent 63
Lower surface white, margins without cilia; mazedium present on marginal lobules Calycidium
63
Upper surface with minute, punctiform pseudocyphellae (×10 lens); lower surface sparsely rhizinate Cetrelia braunsiana
Upper surface without pseudocyphellae; lower surface rhizinate centrally, with a broad, brown, shining, naked marginal zone Parmotrema
64
Lower surface ±tomentose, rhizines present; apothecia when present, laminal 65
Lower surface pubescent, rhizines absent; apothecia when present, on lower surface of marginal lobules Nephroma pr. p.
65
Thallus 5–10 cm diam., ±rosette-forming; ascospores simple or 1–3-septate, thin-or thick-walled, colourless or brown; ellipsoidal or oval–ellipsoidal 66
Thallus large, 5–20(–60) cm diam., spreading; lobes rounded to linear–laciniate; ascospores colourless, fusiform–acicular, 1–3(–7)-septate, wall smooth Lobaria pr. p.
66
Ascospores colourless, thin-walled 67
Ascospores brown, thick-walled 68
67
Terricolous/humicolous; apothecia pink, thalline margin absent; ascospores 1-septate at maturity Icmadophila splachnirima
Corticolous; apothecia lecanorine with a conspicuous thalline margin; cephalodia absent or present; ascospores simple, the wall often ornamented Pannaria pr. p.
68
Thallus brown or grey-brown, greenish when wet; ascospores of Pachysporaria-type Hyperphyscia
Thallus pale- to dark-grey or grey-white, not greenish when wet; ascospores of Dirinaria-type Dirinaria

KEY 12 – FRUTICOSE LICHENS

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1
Thallus conspicuously dimorphic, basal thallus persistent, crustose, or of squamules or phyllocladia; ascomata or basidomata on elevated, simple or branched stalks (secondary thallus) 2
Thallus uniform, dying at base or arising from a ±well-developed holdfast 15
2
Basal thallus crustose 3
Basal thallus of squamules or phyllocladia 8
3
Fruiting bodies ascomata 4
Fruiting bodies basidiomata 7
4
Basal crust white, grey or green, isidiate or sorediate; apothecia stalked or sessile, stalks solid not fenestrae; on soil or rock 5
Basal crust emerald-green; apothecia large, convex, globose to conglomerate, brown, on hollow, ±fenestrate stalks, without soredia or isidia; on rotting wood or overgrowing bryophytes Metus conglomeratus
5
Basal crust grey or green, with or without soredia, without isidia; apothecia convex or plane, with a pale proper margin, pink, orange-pink or reddish, on stalks to subsessile; ascospores 8 per ascus 6
Basal crust white, isidiate, isidia papillate to columnar; apothecia in fertile verrucae embedded in tips of isidia, white, concolorous with isidia; ascospores 1 per ascus Pertusaria dactylina
6
Basal crust pale- to mid-green, minutely warted–squamulose, without soredia; podetia simple to 1–4-branched; apothecia clustered, pale-pink to dark reddish brown, with a distinct, concolorous margin Baeomyces heteromorphus
Basal crust grey-white and granular–leprose to yellow-green and corticate, with or without whitish, efflorescent soredia; podetia simple; apothecia pink or orange-pink, capitate or sessile, marginate or immarginate Dibaeis
7
Basidiomata an impermanent yellow, orange or brownish toadstool; basal crust of gelatinous green globules; on damp soil Lichenomphalia
Basidiomata simple to lacerate or lobed stalks, not a toadstool, white to pale-yellow or ochre-pink, slimy, ±translucent; basal crust bright-green, slimy, translucent when moist; on rotting wood or rock Multiclavula
8
Basal thallus of terete or flattened phyllocladia, mainly evanescent; cephalodia containing cyanobacteria often present 9
Basal thallus of squamules, persistent; cephalodia absent 10
9
Apothecia expanded, to twice as wide as supporting branch or wider; thalline exciple massive, ±cup-like, coarsely wrinkled–scabrid; disc subconcave to plane; ascospores large, broadly cylindrical–ellipsoidal, muriform, 1–2 per ascus Argopsis megalospora
Apothecia rarely wider than supporting branch; thalline exciple rarely well developed, often obscured by disc that is often convex–subglobose; ascospores narrowly elongate–fusiform, 1–13-septate, 8 per ascus Stereocaulon
10
Basal squamules 0.5–2(–5) mm diam., not granular–furfuraceous 11
Basal squamules minute, sorediate, granular–furfuraceous; apothecia minute, peltate, clustered, black Cladia schizopora
11
Secondary thallus hollow 12
Secondary thallus solid 13
12
Primary thallus squamulose, greenish or brownish; prothallus when present pale; secondary thallus blunt, pointed or cup-forming, simple or branched; apothecia red, pale-or dark-brown Cladonia
Primary thallus nodular–squamulose, greyish white; prothallus black; secondary thallus subterete, simple or sparingly branched; apothecia glossy, black, forming conglomerate clusters Pycnothelia caliginosa
13
Squamules and pseudopodetia yellow-green (usnic acid present); pseudopodetia ridged, striate or fissured; apothecia yellow-pink or red-brown 14
Squamules and pseudopodetia pale-green or olive-brown or red-brown, never yellowish (usnic acid absent); pseudopodetia uniformly terete, finger-like, not ridged, striate or fissured; apothecia black Neophyllis melacarpa
14
Apothecia large (2–6 mm wide) on ventral surface of flattened apices, spathulate, undulate Thysanothecium
Apothecia minute (0.05–0.3–0.8 mm diam.), clustered, peltate Notocladonia
15
Thallus hollow 16
Thallus solid 20
16
Thallus dying at base, unattached 17
Thallus attached at base by a well-defined holdfast Ramalina pr. p.
17
Thallus consistently sterile 18
Thallus often fertile 19
18
Thallus chalky white, worm-like, 1–2 mm wide, and to 5 cm long; C− Thamnolia vermicularis
Thallus pale olive-green above, dark red-brown to black below, 0.1–0.2 mm wide, 5–10 mm long, matt-forming; C+ red (gyrophoric acid) Bartlettiella fragilis
19
Thallus repeatedly and intricately branched, without squamules; apices without cups or conspicuous apothecia; consistently and conspicuously perforate (clathrate–fenestrate) Cladia
Thallus simple or sparingly branched, often with ±ascending squamules; apices tapered or terminated by cups or sometimes with conglomerate, brown or red apothecia Cladonia
20
Thallus variously coloured not yellow-orange or K+ purple 21
Thallus yellow-orange, K+ purple Teloschistes
21
Photobiont cyanobacterial 22
Photobiont green 25
22
Thallus homoiomerous, small, 1–5 mm tall; branches terete to flattened, not richly branched 23
Thallus heteromerous; upper parts richly branched, coralloid–dendroid; taller than 10 mm 24
23
On marine rocks in lower supralittoral zone; tufted, to 5 mm tall, in small colonies 5–10 mm diam., sometimes coalescing to form swards; lobes terete (even towards base), dull olive-brown to black Lichina confinis
On dry, steeply sloping to vertical rock walls, periodically inundated in alpine or subalpine habitats, never on marine rocks; lobes flattened, folded–congested, 1–1.5 mm wide and to 4 mm long, attached by a central umbilicus; dark olive-green to olive-brown Digitothyrea rotundata
24
Basal stalk and holdfast well-defined; pale fawnish or greyish when dry, blue-black when moist, pubescent, terete or in part flattened; upper parts copiously branched–dendroid; always sterile, rarely with attached leaflets of species of green Sticta "Dendriscocaulon"
Without a well-defined basal stalk or holdfast, broadly attached, cushion-like; branches complex–entangled; apothecia common, disc orange-yellow with a pale, proper margin; ascospores 1–2-septate Polychidium contortum
25
Thallus cylindrical, ±terete 26
Thallus flattened or ±canaliculate, not terete 40
26
With a tough, central chondroid axial strand 27
Without a central chondroid axial strand 29
27
Axis solid 28
Axis tubular Usnea baileyi
28
Thallus yellow or yellow-green or pale greenish or occasionally suffused red or red-brown, lacking black banding or annulations; apothecial discs yellow to green-yellow Usnea pr. p.
Thallus yellowish towards base, often blackened or violet-black above, at least at apices, often with conspicuous black banding and annulations; apothecial discs black or blue-black Usnea sect. Neuropogon
29
Thallus dying at base 30
Thallus attached at base, often by a well-defined holdfast 33
30
Thallus red-brown, black or olivaceous, never whitish 31
Thallus pale creamish white or fawnish Leifidium tenerum
31
Thallus lax, straggling or decumbent; grey-black, brown-black or olivaceous 32
Thallus rigid, ±erect, tufted, brittle; dark red-brown Cetraria pr. p.
32
Thallus black, grey, often pale straw-coloured or whitish or pinkish towards base; branches with distinct, white, often raised pseudocyphellae (×10 lens); C+ rose-red Alectoria nigricans
Thallus olivaceous, brown or brown-black; branches with or without indistinct, flat or concave pseudocyphellae Bryoria
33
Phyllocladia or isidioid branchlets present 34
Phyllocladia or isidioid branchlets absent 37
34
Isidioid branchlets present, without true phyllocladia; ascospores spherical, simple, in a powdery mass (mazedium) 35
Isidioid branchlets absent, true phyllocladia present; ascospores to cylindrical–ellipsoidal, septate to muriform, not in a mazedium 36
35
Thallus large (7–30 cm tall), tree-like; attached by a thick holdfast of brown, branching rhizoids; upper branches spreading–dendroid; isidioid branchlets in fasciculate groups; a canopy species Sphaerophorus stereocauloides
Thallus smaller (1–10, rarely to 25 cm tall); upper parts not spreading–dendroid; isidioid branchlets scattered, not in fasciculate groups; on tree trunks, never or rarely in canopy branches Bunodophoron pr. p.
36
Apothecia expanded, to twice as wide as supporting branch or wider; thalline exciple massive, ±cup-like, coarsely wrinkled–scabrid; disc subconcave to plane; ascospores large, broadly cylindrical–ellipsoidal, muriform, 1–2 per ascus Argopsis megalospora
Apothecia rarely wider than supporting branch; thalline exciple rarely well-developed, often obscured by disc that is often convex–subglobose; ascospores narrowly elongate–fusiform, 1–13-septate, 8 per ascus Stereocaulon
37
Apothecia not elevated on fertile branches; mazedium absent 38
Apothecia on elevated fertile branches; ascospores colourless, grey or brown, in a powdery mass (mazedium) Bunodophoron pr. p.
38
Thallus not yellow-green (usnic acid absent); without pseudocyphellae 39
Thallus yellow-green (usnic acid); small, inconspicuous white, linear pseudocyphellae (×10 lens) often present Ramalina pr. p.
39
Thallus black, mat-forming, entangled; on alpine rocks Pseudephebe
Thallus pale greenish white, of simple or sparingly branched, short, pale, cartilaginous stalks, densely covered with white or greenish, granular soralia; on lowland and coastal rocks and soil Leprocaulon
40
Upper and lower surfaces concolorous; mazedium absent 41
Upper (dorsal) surface green or grey-green; mazedium present on elevated, fertile ranches; lower (ventral) surface white Bunodophoron pr. p.
41
Thallus attached at base; lobes not or rarely canaliculate, without lateral spinules 42
Thallus dying at base; lobes often canaliculate, with small lateral spinules 44
42
Terricolous; alpine or subalpine; with a distinct (often delicate) rooting system; aminal pseudocyphellae absent 43
Corticolous, rarely saxicolous; lowland often coastal in high-light habitats; yellow-green (usnic acid); attached by a basal disc or holdfast but without a distinct rooting system; laminal and marginal, white pseudocyphellae present (×10 lens) Ramalina pr. p.
43
Thallus laterally compessed; white or tinged bluish, fawn, cream, greenish or reddish; sterile Siphula
Thallus inflated–terete; red-brown above, fawnish or olivaceous below; fertile; apothecia black, lecideine, terminal Toninia bullata
44
Thallus brownish red; with narrow, marginal pseudocyphellae; medulla C− Cetraria islandica ssp. antarctica
Thallus yellowish brown or greenish or grey-brown; with laminal pseudocyphellae; medulla C+ red Cetrariella delisei

KEY 13 – FOLIICOLOUS LICHENS

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1
Thallus crustose or of scattered goniocysts 2
Thallus squamulose, foliose, fruticose or byssoid 27
2
Campylidia present 3
Campylidia absent 6
3
Ascospores muriform 4
Ascospores 3-septate; conidia 1-septate Badimiella pteridophila
4
Ascospores 1 per ascus 5
Ascospores 2–4 per ascus Tapellaria phyllophila
5
Cortex present; hymenium I−; hypothecium pigmented (bluish or dark-brown); conidia thread-like, 1-septate Calopadia
Cortex absent; hymenium I+ blue; hypothecium colourless; conidia simple, pyriform Sporopodium phyllocharis
6
Ascospores septate 7
Ascospores muriform 11
7
Ascospores 1-septate 8
Ascospores > 1-septate 15
8
Ascomata apothecioid 9
Ascomata perithecioid 10
9
Photobiont Trentepohlia; without amyloid structures in the ascus apex; ascospores 1-septate, both cells equal Coenogonium (including Dimerella)
Photobiont not Trentepohlia; ascus apex with amyloid (I+ blue) tholus and tube structures; ascospores 1-septate, one cell larger Fellhanera bouteillei
10
Photobiont Phycopeltis; perithecium furnished with bundles of whitish hairs; ascospores 15–24 × 6–9.5 μm, distal cell shorter and more rounded Caprettia setifera
Photobiont not Phycopeltis; perithecia smooth, without hairs Strigula
11
Ascomata apothecioid; ascospores 1 per ascus 12
Ascomata perithecioid; ascospores 2–4 per ascus Aspidothelium cinerascens
12
Thallus bristly or hairy; cortex present; apical tholus I− 13
Thallus smooth or farinose; cortex absent; apical tholus I+ blue Sporopodium phyllocharis
13
Apothecia in thalline warts; disc grey or white 14
Apothecia sessile; disc orange, yellow or brownish; whitish setae present Aderkomyces albostrigosus
14
Thallus green when dry; prothallus lacking; apothecial disc pruinose Calenia microcarpa
Thallus white when dry; marginal prothallus present; apothecial disc epruinose Gyalectidium cf. palmicola
15
Ascomata apothecioid 16
Ascomata perithecioid 24
16
Ascospores septate; apothecial disc not yellow-orange to red-brown 17
Ascospores simple; apothecial disc yellow-orange to red-brown Malcolmiella cinereovirens
17
Thallus not areolate; apothecia not pink or stalked 18
Thallus areolate; apothecia pink, stalked Podotara pilophoriformis
18
Margins of apothecial disc not byssoid; ascus apex without amyloid tube structures; hypothecium K− 19
Margins of apothecial byssoid (×10 lens); ascus apex with amyloid tube structure; hypothecium K+ purple Byssoloma
19
Apothecia rounded or lirellate, not elongate–angular 20
Apothecia elongate to angular (triangular or quadrangular), margins of dark tissue that at first covers disc; ascospores 6–8-septate, 13–23 × 5–10 μm Aulaxina quadrangula
20
Thallus not yellow or orange; apothecial discs rounded to distorted, not lirellate or stellate; ascospores with perispore only when immature 21
Thallus yellow or orange; apothecial discs lirellate or stellate; ascospores with a perispore at maturity Enterographa bella
21
Apothecial discs grey to almost black; hamathecium of branched, anastomosing paraphyses 22
Apothecial discs orange, pale- to dark-brown; hamathecium of unbranched paraphyses Bacidina apiahica
22
Ascospores ellipsoidal or fusiform, not spirally arranged, with end cell or a media cell larger; apothecial margins concolorous with thallus or absent 23
Ascospores spirally arranged, acicular, all cells alike; apothecial margins concolorous with disc Scoliciosporum lividum
23
Ascospores with an expanded end cell Arthonia
Ascospores with an expanded median cell Mazosia
24
Perithecium without moniliform hairs 25
Perithecium with moniliform hairs Porina rubrofusca
25
Perithecium glabrous 26
Perithecium with projecting bristles Trichothelium
26
Photobiont Phycopeltis; ascospores 3–7-septate Porina
Photobiont Trentepohlia; ascospores 9–15-septate Pocsia dispersa
27
Thallus foliose 28
Thallus fruticose or byssoid 33
28
Pseudocyphellae absent 29
Pseudocyphellae present on lower surface (rarely on upper surface) Pseudocyphellaria
29
Cephalodia absent 30
Cephalodia present on upper surface Pannaria (green)
30
Photobiont cyanobacterial; ascospores colourless 31
Photobiont green; ascospores (when present) polarilocular, brown Physcia
31
Thallus gelatinous when moist; ascospores septate 32
Thallus not gelatinous when moist; ascospores simple Pannaria
32
Thallus usually brown-black or greenish black; cellular cortex on upper and lower surfaces absent (microscope) Collema
Thallus blue-grey, brownish or grey-black; cortex of 1-cell thickness on upper and lower surfaces Leptogium
33
Thallus fruticose 34
Thallus byssoid Roccellinastrum flavescens
34
Photobiont cyanobacterial; apothecial discs reddish Polychidium contortum
Photobiont green (Trebouxia); apothecial discs pale greenish yellow Ramalina
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